a. General

1. The MLS provides precision navigation guidance for exact alignment and descent of aircraft on approach to a runway. It provides azimuth, elevation, and distance.

2. Both lateral and vertical guidance may be displayed on conventional course deviation indicators or incorporated into multipurpose cockpit displays. Range information can be displayed by conventional DME indicators and also incorporated into multipurpose displays.

3. The MLS supplements the ILS as the standard landing system in the U.S. for civil, military, and international civil aviation. At international airports, ILS service is protected to 2010.

4. The system may be divided into five functions:

(a) Approach azimuth;

(b) Back azimuth;

(c) Approach elevation;

(d) Range; and

(e) Data communications.

5. The standard configuration of MLS ground equipment includes:

(a) An azimuth station to perform functions (a) and (e) above. In addition to providing azimuth navigation guidance, the station transmits basic data which consists of information associated directly with the operation of the landing system, as well as advisory data on the performance of the ground equipment.

(b) An elevation station to perform function (c).

(c) Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) to perform range guidance, both standard DME (DME/N) and precision DME (DME/P).

6. MLS Expansion Capabilities. The standard configuration can be expanded by adding one or more of the following functions or characteristics.

(a) Back azimuth. Provides lateral guidance for missed approach and departure navigation.

(b) Auxiliary data transmissions. Provides additional data, including refined airborne positioning, meteorological information, runway status, and other supplementary information.

(c) Expanded Service Volume (ESV) proportional guidance to 60 degrees.

7. MLS identification is a four-letter designation starting with the letter M. It is transmitted in International Morse Code at least six times per minute by the approach azimuth (and back azimuth) ground equipment.

b. Approach Azimuth Guidance

1. The azimuth station transmits MLS angle and data on one of 200 channels within the frequency range of 5031 to 5091 MHz.

2. The equipment is normally located about 1,000 feet beyond the stop end of the runway, but there is considerable flexibility in selecting sites. For example, for heliport operations the azimuth transmitter can be collocated with the elevation transmitter.

3. The azimuth coverage extends:

(a) Laterally, at least 40 degrees on either side of the runway centerline in a standard configuration,

(b) In elevation, up to an angle of 15 degrees and to at least 20,000 feet, and

(c) In range, to at least 20 NM.
 

FIG 1-1-8

Coverage Volume
Azimuth

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c. Elevation Guidance

1. The elevation station transmits signals on the same frequency as the azimuth station. A single frequency is time-shared between angle and data functions.

2. The elevation transmitter is normally located about 400 feet from the side of the runway between runway threshold and the touchdown zone.

3. Elevation coverage is provided in the same airspace as the azimuth guidance signals:

(a) In elevation, to at least +15 degrees;

(b) Laterally, to fill the Azimuth lateral coverage; and

(c) In range, to at least 20 NM. (See FIG 1-1-9.)
 

FIG 1-1-9

Coverage Volumes
Elevation

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d. Range Guidance

1. The MLS Precision Distance Measuring Equipment (DME/P) functions the same as the navigation DME described in paragraph 1-1-7, Distance Measuring Equipment (DME), but there are some technical differences. The beacon transponder operates in the frequency band 962 to 1105 MHz and responds to an aircraft interrogator. The MLS DME/P accuracy is improved to be consistent with the accuracy provided by the MLS azimuth and elevation stations.

2. A DME/P channel is paired with the azimuth and elevation channel. A complete listing of the 200 paired channels of the DME/P with the angle functions is contained in FAA Standard 022 (MLS Interoperability and Performance Requirements).

3. The DME/N or DME/P is an integral part of the MLS and is installed at all MLS facilities unless a waiver is obtained. This occurs infrequently and only at outlying, low density airports where marker beacons or compass locators are already in place.

e. Data Communications

1. The data transmission can include both the basic and auxiliary data words. All MLS facilities transmit basic data. Where needed, auxiliary data can be transmitted.

2. Coverage limits. MLS data are transmitted throughout the azimuth (and back azimuth when provided) coverage sectors.

3. Basic data content. Representative data include:

(a) Station identification;

(b) Exact locations of azimuth, elevation and DME/P stations (for MLS receiver processing functions);

(c) Ground equipment performance level; and

(d) DME/P channel and status.

4. Auxiliary data content: Representative data include:

(a) 3-D locations of MLS equipment;

(b) Waypoint coordinates;

(c) Runway conditions; and

(d) Weather (e.g., RVR, ceiling, altimeter setting, wind, wake vortex, wind shear).

f. Operational Flexibility

1. The MLS has the capability to fulfill a variety of needs in the approach, landing, missed approach and departure phases of flight. For example:

(a) Curved and segmented approaches;

(b) Selectable glide path angles;

(c) Accurate 3-D positioning of the aircraft in space; and

(d) The establishment of boundaries to ensure clearance from obstructions in the terminal area.

2. While many of these capabilities are available to any MLS-equipped aircraft, the more sophisticated capabilities (such as curved and segmented approaches) are dependent upon the particular capabilities of the airborne equipment.

g. Summary

1. Accuracy. The MLS provides precision three-dimensional navigation guidance accurate enough for all approach and landing maneuvers.

2. Coverage. Accuracy is consistent throughout the coverage volumes. (See FIG 1-1-10.)

FIG 1-1-10

Coverage Volumes
3-D Representation

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3. Environment. The system has low susceptibility to interference from weather conditions and airport ground traffic.

4. Channels. MLS has 200 channels- enough for any foreseeable need.

5. Data. The MLS transmits ground-air data messages associated with the systems operation.

6. Range information. Continuous range information is provided with an accuracy of about 100 feet.

1-1-12. NAVAID Identifier Removal During Maintenance

During periods of routine or emergency maintenance, coded identification (or code and voice, where applicable) is removed from certain FAA NAVAID's. Removal of identification serves as a warning to pilots that the facility is officially off the air for tune-up or repair and may be unreliable even though intermittent or constant signals are received.

NOTE-
During periods of maintenance VHF ranges may radiate a T-E-S-T code (-llll- ).

1-1-13. NAVAID's with Voice

a. Voice equipped en route radio navigational aids are under the operational control of either an FAA Automated Flight Service Station (AFSS) or an approach control facility. The voice communication is available on some facilities. The Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS) broadcast capability on selected VOR sites is in the process of being implemented throughout the conterminous U.S. and does not provide voice communication. The availability of two-way voice communication and HIWAS is indicated in the A/FD and aeronautical charts.

b. Unless otherwise noted on the chart, all radio navigation aids operate continuously except during shutdowns for maintenance. Hours of operation of facilities not operating continuously are annotated on charts and in the A/FD.

1-1-14. User Reports on NAVAID Performance

a. Users of the National Airspace System (NAS) can render valuable assistance in the early correction of NAVAID malfunctions by reporting their observations of undesirable NAVAID performance. Although NAVAID's are monitored by electronic detectors, adverse effects of electronic interference, new obstructions or changes in terrain near the NAVAID can exist without detection by the ground monitors. Some of the characteristics of malfunction or deteriorating performance which should be reported are: erratic course or bearing indications; intermittent, or full, flag alarm; garbled, missing or obviously improper coded identification; poor quality communications reception; or, in the case of frequency interference, an audible hum or tone accompanying radio communications or NAVAID identification.

b. Reporters should identify the NAVAID, location of the aircraft, time of the observation, type of aircraft and describe the condition observed; the type of receivers in use is also useful information. Reports can be made in any of the following ways:

1. Immediate report by direct radio communication to the controlling Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC), Control Tower, or FSS. This method provides the quickest result.

2. By telephone to the nearest FAA facility.

3. By FAA Form 8000-7, Safety Improvement Report, a postage-paid card designed for this purpose. These cards may be obtained at FAA FSS's, Flight Standards District Offices, and General Aviation Fixed Base Operations.

c. In aircraft that have more than one receiver, there are many combinations of possible interference between units. This can cause either erroneous navigation indications or, complete or partial blanking out of the communications. Pilots should be familiar enough with the radio installation of the particular airplanes they fly to recognize this type of interference.

1-1-15. LORAN

a. Introduction

1. LORAN, which uses a network of land-based radio transmitters, was developed to provide an accurate system for LOng RAnge Navigation. The system was configured to provide reliable, all weather navigation for marine users along the U.S. coasts and in the Great Lakes. The current system, known as LORAN-C, was the third version of four developed since World War II.

2. With an expanding user group in the general aviation community, the LORAN coastal facilities were augmented in 1991 to provide signal coverage over the entire continental U.S. The FAA and the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) are incorporating LORAN into the NAS for supplemental en route and nonprecision approach operations. LORAN-C is also supported in the Canadian airspace system. This guide is intended to provide an introduction to the LORAN system, LORAN avionics, the use of LORAN for aircraft navigation, and to examine the possible future of LORAN in aviation.

b. LORAN Chain

1. The 27 U.S. LORAN transmitters that provide signal coverage for the continental U.S. and the southern half of Alaska are distributed from Caribou, ME, to Attu Island in the Aleutians. Station operations are organized into sub-groups of four to six stations called "chains." One station in the chain is designated the "Master" and the others are "secondary" stations.

2. The LORAN navigation signal is a carefully structured sequence of brief radio frequency pulses centered at 100 kHz. The sequence of signal transmissions consists of a pulse group from the Master (M) station followed at precise time intervals by groups from the secondary stations which are designated by the U.S. Coast Guard with the letters V, W, X, Y and Z. All secondary stations radiate pulses in groups of eight, but the Master signal for identification has an additional ninth pulse.

3. The time interval between the reoccurrence of the Master pulse group is the Group Repetition Interval (GRI). The GRI is the same for all stations in a chain and each LORAN chain has a unique GRI. Since all stations in a particular chain operate on the same radio frequency, the GRI is the key by which a LORAN receiver can identify and isolate signal groups from a specific chain.

EXAMPLE-
Transmitters in the northeast U.S. chain operate with a GRI of 99,600 microseconds which is shortened to 9960 for convenience. The master station (m) at Sseneca, NY, controls: secondary stations (w) at Caribou, ME; (x) at Nantucket, MA; (y) at Carolina Beach, NC; and (z) at Dana, IN. In order to keep chain operations precise, the system uses monitor receivers at Cape Elizabeth, ME, Sandy Hook, NJ and Plumbrook, OH. Monitor receivers continuously measure various aspects of the quality and accuracy of LORAN signals and report system status to a control station where chain timing is maintained.

4. The line between the Master and each secondary station is the "baseline" for a pair of stations. Typical baselines are from 600 to 1,000 nautical miles in length. The continuation of the baseline in either direction is a "baseline extension."

5. LORAN transmitter stations have time and control equipment, a transmitter, auxiliary power equipment, a building about 100 by 30 feet in size and an antenna that is about 700 feet tall. A station generally requires approximately 100 or more acres of land to accommodate guy lines that keep the antenna in position. Each LORAN station transmits from 400 to 1,600 kilowatts of signal power.

6. The USCG operates 27 stations, comprising eight chains, in the U.S. NAS. Four control stations, which monitor chain performance, have personnel on duty full time. The Canadian east and west coast chains also provide signal coverage over small areas of the NAS.

7. When a control station detects a signal problem that could affect navigation accuracy, an alert signal called "Blink" is activated. Blink is a distinctive change in the group of eight pulses that can be recognized automatically by a receiver so the user is notified instantly that the LORAN system should not be used for navigation. In addition, other problems can cause signal transmissions from a station to be halted.

8. Each individual LORAN chain provides navigation-quality signal coverage over an identified area as shown for the West Coast chain, GRI 9940. The chain Master station is at Fallon, NV, and secondary stations are at George, WA; Middletown, CA; and Searchlight, NV. In a signal coverage area the signal strength relative to the normal ambient radio noise must be adequate to assure successful reception.
 

FIG 1-1-11

LORAN C
Pulse

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FIG 1-1-12

LORAN C
Northeast U.S. Chain

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c. The LORAN Receiver

1. Before a LORAN receiver can provide navigation information for a pilot, it must successfully receive, or "acquire," signals from three or more stations in a chain. Acquisition involves the time synchronization of the receiver with the chain GRI, identification of the Master station signals from among those checked, identification of secondary station signals, and the proper selection of the point in each signal at which measurements should be made.

2. Signal reception at any site will require a pilot to provide location information such as approximate latitude and longitude, or the GRI to be used, to the receiver. Once activated, most receivers will store present location information for later use.

3. The basic measurements made by LORAN receivers are the differences in time-of-arrival between the Master signal and the signals from each of the secondary stations of a chain. Each "time difference" (TD) value is measured to a precision of about 0.1 microseconds. As a rule of thumb, 0.1 microsecond is equal to about 100 feet.

4. An aircraft's LORAN receiver must recognize three signal conditions:

(a) Usable signals;

(b) Absence of signals; and

(c) Signal blink.

5. The most critical phase of flight is during the approach to landing at an airport. During the approach phase the receiver must detect a lost signal, or a signal Blink, within 10 seconds of the occurrence and warn the pilot of the event.

6. Most receivers have various internal tests for estimating the probable accuracy of the current TD values and consequent navigation solutions. Tests may include verification of the timing alignment of the receiver clock with the LORAN pulse, or a continuous measurement of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). SNR is the relative strength of the LORAN signals compared to the local ambient noise level. If any of the tests fail, or if the quantities measured are out of the limits set for reliable navigation, then an alarm will be activated to alert the pilot.

7. LORAN signals operate in the low frequency band around (100 kHz) that has been reserved for LORAN use. Adjacent to the band, however, are numerous low frequency communications transmitters. Nearby signals can distort the LORAN signals and must be eliminated by the receiver to assure proper operation. To eliminate interfering signals, LORAN receivers have selective internal filters. These filters, commonly known as "notch filters" reduce the effect of interfering signals.

8. Careful installation of antennas, good metal-to-metal electrical bonding, and provisions for precipitation noise discharge on the aircraft are essential for the successful operation of LORAN receivers. A LORAN antenna should be installed on an aircraft in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. Corroded bonding straps should be replaced, and static discharge devices installed at points indicated by the aircraft manufacturer.

FIG 1-1-13

LORAN- C
West Coast Chain

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d. LORAN Navigation

1. An airborne LORAN receiver has four major parts:

(a) Signal processor;

(b) Navigation computer;

(c) Control/display; and

(d) Antenna.

2. The signal processor acquires LORAN signals and measures the difference between the time-of-arrival of each secondary station pulse group and the Master station pulse group. The measured TD's depend on the location of the receiver in relation to the three or more transmitters.

FIG 1-1-14

First Line-of-Position

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(a) The first TD will locate an aircraft somewhere on a line-of-position (LOP) on which the receiver will measure the same TD value.

(b) A second LOP is defined by a TD measurement between the Master station signal and the signal from another secondary station.
 

FIG 1-1-15

Second Line-of-Position

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FIG 1-1-16

Intersection of Lines-of-Position

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(c) The intersection of the measured LOP's is the position of the aircraft.

3. The navigation computer converts TD values to corresponding latitude and longitude. Once the time and position of the aircraft is established at two points, distance to destination, cross track error, ground speed, estimated time of arrival, etc., can be determined. Cross track error can be displayed as the vertical needle of a course deviation indicator, or digitally, as decimal parts of a mile left or right of course. During a nonprecision approach, course guidance must be displayed to the pilot with a full scale deviation of ±0.30 nautical miles or greater.

4. LORAN navigation for non-precision approaches requires accurate and reliable information. During an approach the occurrence of signal Blink or loss of signal must be detected within 10 seconds and the pilot must be notified. LORAN signal accuracy for approaches is 0.25 nautical miles, well within the required accuracy of 0.30 nautical miles. LORAN signal accuracy can be improved by applying correction values.

5. Flying a LORAN nonprecision approach is different from flying a VOR approach. A VOR approach is on a radial of the VOR station, with guidance sensitivity increasing as the aircraft nears the airport. The LORAN system provides a linear grid, so there is constant guidance sensitivity everywhere in the approach procedure. Consequently, inaccuracies and ambiguities that occur during operations in close proximity to VOR's (station passage, for example) do not occur in LORAN approaches.

6. The navigation computer also provides storage for data entered by pilot or provided by the receiver manufacturer. The receiver's database is updated at local maintenance facilities every 60 days to include all changes made by the FAA.

7. The FAA is currently canceling all LORAN nonprecision approaches with the advent of Global Positioning System (GPS).

e. Notices to Airmen (NOTAM's) are issued for LORAN-C chain or station outages. Domestic NOTAM (D)'s are issued under the identifier "LRN." International NOTAM's are issued under the KNMH series. Pilots may obtain these NOTAM's from FSS briefers upon request.

FIG 1-1-17

North Pacific Chain

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FIG 1-1-18

Coverage Over Alaska

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FIG 1-1-19

Canadian West Coast Chain

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FIG 1-1-20

U.S. West Coast Chain

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FIG 1-1-21

North Central U.S. Chain

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FIG 1-1-22

South Central U.S. Chain

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FIG 1-1-23

U.S. Great Lakes Chain

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FIG 1-1-24

U.S. Southeast Chain

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FIG 1-1-25

Northeast U.S. Chain

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FIG 1-1-26

Canadian East Coast Chain

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f. LORAN-C status information

Prerecorded telephone answering service messages pertaining to LORAN-C are available in TBL 1-1-5 and TBL 1-1-6.

g. The U.S. will continue to operate the LORAN-C system in the short term beyond the previously planned December 31, 2000, termination date while continuing to evaluate the long-term need for continuation of the system. Users will be given reasonable notice if it is concluded that LORAN-C is not needed or is not cost effective, so that they will have the opportunity to transition to alternative navigation aids.

TBL 1-1-5

Prerecorded LORAN-C Status Information

Rate	Chain	Telephone
5930	Canadian East Coast	(709) 454-3261*
7980	Southeast U.S.	(904) 569-5241
8970	Great Lakes	(607) 869-5395
9960	Northeast U.S.	(607) 869-5395
*St. Anthony, Newfoundland, Canada. Information can also be obtained directly from the office of the Coordinator of Chain Operations (COCO) for each chain. The following telephone numbers are for each COCO office.

TBL 1-1-6

LORAN-C Coordinator of Chain Operations Telephone Numbers

Rate	Chain	Telephone	Location
4990	Central Pacific	808-247-5591	Kaneohe, HI
5930	Canadian East Coast	709-454-2392	St. Antony, NF
5990	Canadian West Coast	604-666-0472	Vancover, BC
7930	North Atlantic	011-44-1-409-4758	London, UK
7960	Gulf of Alaska	907-487-5583	Kodiak, AK
7970	Norwegian Sea	011-44-1-409-4758	London, UK
7980	Southeast U.S.	205-899-5225	Malone, FL
7990	Mediterranean Sea	011-44-1-409-4758	London, UK
8290	North Central U.S.	707-987-2911	Middletown, CA
8970	Great Lakes	607-869-5393	Seneca, NY
9610	South Central U.S.	205-899-5225	Malone, FL
9940	West Coast U.S.	707-987-2911	Middletown, CA
9960	Northeast U.S.	607-869-5393	Seneca, NY
9970	Northwest Pacific	415-437-3224	San Francisco, CA
9990	North Pacific	907-487-5583	Kodiak, AK

1-1-16. OMEGA and OMEGA/Very Low Frequency (VLF) Navigation Systems

OMEGA operations were terminated on September 30, 1997.

1-1-17. VHF Direction Finder

a. The VHF Direction Finder (VHF/DF) is one of the common systems that helps pilots without their being aware of its operation. It is a ground-based radio receiver used by the operator of the ground station. FAA facilities that provide VHF/DF service are identified in the A/FD.

b. The equipment consists of a directional antenna system and a VHF radio receiver.

c. The VHF/DF receiver display indicates the magnetic direction of the aircraft from the ground station each time the aircraft transmits.

d. DF equipment is of particular value in locating lost aircraft and in helping to identify aircraft on radar.

REFERENCE-
AIM, Direction Finding Instrument Approach Procedure, Paragraph 6-2-3.