e. The FAA, NWS, and other organizations that enter PIREP's into the weather reporting system use the format listed in TBL 7-1-5. Items 1 through 6 are included in all transmitted PIREP's along with one or more of items 7 through 13. Although the PIREP should be as complete and concise as possible, pilots should not be overly concerned with strict format or phraseology. The important thing is that the information is relayed so other pilots may benefit from your observation. If a portion of the report needs clarification, the ground station will request the information. Completed PIREP's will be transmitted to weather circuits as in the following examples:

EXAMPLE-
1. KCMH UA /OV APE 230010/TM 1516/FL085/TP BE20/SK BKN065/WX FV03SM HZ FU/TA 20/TB LGT

NOTE-
1. One zero miles southwest of Appleton VOR; time 1516 UTC; altitude eight thousand five hundred; aircraft type BE200; bases of the broken cloud layer is six thousand five hundred; flight visibility 3 miles with haze and smoke; air temperature 20 degrees Celsius; light turbulence.

EXAMPLE-
2. KCRW UV /OV KBKW 360015-KCRW/TM 1815/FL120//TP BE99/SK IMC/WX RA/TA M08 /WV 290030/TB LGT-MDT/IC LGT RIME/RM MDT MXD ICG DURGC KROA NWBND FL080-100 1750Z

NOTE-
2. From 15 miles north of Beckley VOR to Charleston VOR; time 1815 UTC; altitude 12,000 feet; type aircraft, BE-99; in clouds; rain; temperature minus 8 Celsius; wind 290 degrees true at 30 knots; light to moderate turbulence; light rime icing; encountered moderate mixed icing during climb northwestbound from Roanoke, VA, between 8,000 and 10,000 feet at 1750 UTC.

7-1-20. PIREP's Relating to Airframe Icing

a. The effects of ice on aircraft are cumulative-thrust is reduced, drag increases, lift lessens, and weight increases. The results are an increase in stall speed and a deterioration of aircraft performance. In extreme cases, 2 to 3 inches of ice can form on the leading edge of the airfoil in less than 5 minutes. It takes but ¹/₂ inch of ice to reduce the lifting power of some aircraft by 50 percent and increases the frictional drag by an equal percentage.

b. A pilot can expect icing when flying in visible precipitation, such as rain or cloud droplets, and the temperature is between +02 and -10 degrees Celsius. When icing is detected, a pilot should do one of two things, particularly if the aircraft is not equipped with deicing equipment; get out of the area of precipitation; or go to an altitude where the temperature is above freezing. This "warmer" altitude may not always be a lower altitude. Proper preflight action includes obtaining information on the freezing level and the above freezing levels in precipitation areas. Report icing to ATC, and if operating IFR, request new routing or altitude if icing will be a hazard. Be sure to give the type of aircraft to ATC when reporting icing. The following describes how to report icing conditions.

1. Trace. Ice becomes perceptible. Rate of accumulation slightly greater than sublimation. Deicing/anti-icing equipment is not utilized unless encountered for an extended period of time (over 1 hour).

2. Light. The rate of accumulation may create a problem if flight is prolonged in this environment (over 1 hour). Occasional use of deicing/anti-icing equipment removes/prevents accumulation. It does not present a problem if the deicing/anti-icing equipment is used.

3. Moderate. The rate of accumulation is such that even short encounters become potentially hazardous and use of deicing/anti-icing equipment or flight diversion is necessary.

4. Severe. The rate of accumulation is such that deicing/anti-icing equipment fails to reduce or control the hazard. Immediate flight diversion is necessary.

EXAMPLE-
Pilot report: give aircraft identification, location, time (UTC), intensity of type, altitude/FL, aircraft type, indicated air speed (IAS), and outside air temperature (OAT).

NOTE-
1. Rime ice. Rough, milky, opaque ice formed by the instantaneous freezing of small supercooled water droplets.
2. Clear ice. A glossy, clear, or translucent ice formed by the relatively slow freezing of large supercooled water droplets.
3. The OAT should be requested by the AFSS/FSS or ATC if not included in the PIREP.

7-1-21. PIREP's Relating to Turbulence

a. When encountering turbulence, pilots are urgently requested to report such conditions to ATC as soon as practicable. PIREP's relating to turbulence should state:

1. Aircraft location.

2. Time of occurrence in UTC.

3. Turbulence intensity.

4. Whether the turbulence occurred in or near clouds.

5. Aircraft altitude or flight level.

6. Type of aircraft.

7. Duration of turbulence.

EXAMPLE-
1. Over Omaha, 1232Z, moderate turbulence in clouds at Flight Level three one zero, Boeing 707.
2. From five zero miles south of Albuquerque to three zero miles north of Phoenix, 1250Z, occasional moderate chop at Flight Level three three zero, DC8.

b. Duration and classification of intensity should be made using TBL 7-1-6.

TBL 7-1-6

7-1-22. Wind Shear PIREP's

a. Because unexpected changes in wind speed and direction can be hazardous to aircraft operations at low altitudes on approach to and departing from airports, pilots are urged to promptly volunteer reports to controllers of wind shear conditions they encounter. An advance warning of this information will assist other pilots in avoiding or coping with a wind shear on approach or departure.

b. When describing conditions, use of the terms "negative" or "positive" wind shear should be avoided. PIREP's of "negative wind shear on final," intended to describe loss of airspeed and lift, have been interpreted to mean that no wind shear was encountered. The recommended method for wind shear reporting is to state the loss or gain of airspeed and the altitudes at which it was encountered.

EXAMPLE-
1. Denver Tower, Cessna 1234 encountered wind shear, loss of 20 knots at 400.
2. Tulsa Tower, American 721 encountered wind shear on final, gained 25 knots between 600 and 400 feet followed by loss of 40 knots between 400 feet and surface.

1. Pilots who are not able to report wind shear in these specific terms are encouraged to make reports in terms of the effect upon their aircraft.

EXAMPLE-
Miami Tower, Gulfstream 403 Charlie encountered an abrupt wind shear at 800 feet on final, max thrust required.

2. Pilots using Inertial Navigation Systems (INS's) should report the wind and altitude both above and below the shear level.

 

FIG 7-1-7

Evolution of a Microburst

 

7-1-23. Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) PIREP's

CAT has become a very serious operational factor to flight operations at all levels and especially to jet traffic flying in excess of 15,000 feet. The best available information on this phenomenon must come from pilots via the PIREP reporting procedures. All pilots encountering CAT conditions are urgently requested to report time, location, and intensity (light, moderate, severe, or extreme) of the element to the FAA facility with which they are maintaining radio contact. If time and conditions permit, elements should be reported according to the standards for other PIREP's and position reports.

REFERENCE-
AIM, PIREP's Relating to Turbulence, Paragraph 7-1-21.

7-1-24. Microbursts

a. Relatively recent meteorological studies have confirmed the existence of microburst phenomenon. Microbursts are small scale intense downdrafts which, on reaching the surface, spread outward in all directions from the downdraft center. This causes the presence of both vertical and horizontal wind shears that can be extremely hazardous to all types and categories of aircraft, especially at low altitudes. Due to their small size, short life span, and the fact that they can occur over areas without surface precipitation, microbursts are not easily detectable using conventional weather radar or wind shear alert systems.

b. Parent clouds producing microburst activity can be any of the low or middle layer convective cloud types. Note, however, that microbursts commonly occur within the heavy rain portion of thunderstorms, and in much weaker, benign appearing convective cells that have little or no precipitation reaching the ground.

c. The life cycle of a microburst as it descends in a convective rain shaft is seen in FIG 7-1-7. An important consideration for pilots is the fact that the microburst intensifies for about 5 minutes after it strikes the ground.

d. Characteristics of microbursts include:

1. Size. The microburst downdraft is typically less than 1 mile in diameter as it descends from the cloud base to about 1,000-3,000 feet above the ground. In the transition zone near the ground, the downdraft changes to a horizontal outflow that can extend to approximately 2 ¹/₂ miles in diameter.
 

FIG 7-1-8

Microburst Encounter During Takeoff

 

2. Intensity. The downdrafts can be as strong as 6,000 feet per minute. Horizontal winds near the surface can be as strong as 45 knots resulting in a 90 knot shear (headwind to tailwind change for a traversing aircraft) across the microburst. These strong horizontal winds occur within a few hundred feet of the ground.

3. Visual Signs. Microbursts can be found almost anywhere that there is convective activity. They may be embedded in heavy rain associated with a thunderstorm or in light rain in benign appearing virga. When there is little or no precipitation at the surface accompanying the microburst, a ring of blowing dust may be the only visual clue of its existence.

4. Duration. An individual microburst will seldom last longer than 15 minutes from the time it strikes the ground until dissipation. The horizontal winds continue to increase during the first 5 minutes with the maximum intensity winds lasting approximately 2-4 minutes. Sometimes microbursts are concentrated into a line structure, and under these conditions, activity may continue for as long as an hour. Once microburst activity starts, multiple microbursts in the same general area are not uncommon and should be expected.

e. Microburst wind shear may create a severe hazard for aircraft within 1,000 feet of the ground, particularly during the approach to landing and landing and take-off phases. The impact of a microburst on aircraft which have the unfortunate experience of penetrating one is characterized in FIG 7-1-8. The aircraft may encounter a headwind (performance increasing) followed by a downdraft and tailwind (both performance decreasing), possibly resulting in terrain impact.

 

FIG 7-1-9

 

f. Detection of Microbursts, Wind Shear and Gust Fronts.

1. FAA's Integrated Wind Shear Detection Plan.

(a) The FAA currently employs an integrated plan for wind shear detection that will significantly improve both the safety and capacity of the majority of the airports currently served by the air carriers. This plan integrates several programs, such as the Integrated Terminal Weather System (ITWS), Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), Weather System Processor (WSP), and Low Level Wind Shear Alert Systems (LLWAS) into a single strategic concept that significantly improves the aviation weather information in the terminal area. (See FIG 7-1-9.)

(b) The wind shear/microburst information and warnings are displayed on the ribbon display terminals (RBDT) located in the tower cabs. They are identical (and standardized) in the LLWAS, TDWR and WSP systems, and so designed that the controller does not need to interpret the data, but simply read the displayed information to the pilot. The RBDT's are constantly monitored by the controller to ensure the rapid and timely dissemination of any hazardous event(s) to the pilot.

(c) The early detection of a wind shear/micro-burst event, and the subsequent warning(s) issued to an aircraft on approach or departure, will alert the pilot/crew to the potential of, and to be prepared for, a situation that could become very dangerous! Without these warnings, the aircraft may NOT be able to climb out of, or safely transition, the event, resulting in a catastrophe. The air carriers, working with the FAA, have developed specialized training programs using their simulators to train and prepare their pilots on the demanding aircraft procedures required to escape these very dangerous wind shear and/or microburst encounters.
 

 

FIG 7-1-10

 

2. Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS).

(a) The LLWAS provides wind data and software processes to detect the presence of hazardous wind shear and microbursts in the vicinity of an airport. Wind sensors, mounted on poles sometimes as high as 150 feet, are (ideally) located 2,000 - 3,500 feet, but not more than 5,000 feet, from the centerline of the runway. (See FIG 7-1-10.)

(b) LLWAS was fielded in 1988 at 110 airports across the nation. Many of these systems have been replaced by new TDWR and WSP technology. Eventually all LLWAS systems will be phased out; however, 39 airports will be upgraded to the LLWAS-NE (Network Expansion) system, which employs the very latest software and sensor technology. The new LLWAS-NE systems will not only provide the controller with wind shear warnings and alerts, including wind shear/microburst detection at the centerfield wind sensor location, but will also provide the location of the hazards relative to the airport runway(s). It will also have the flexibility and capability to grow with the airport as new runways are built. As many as 32 sensors, strategically located around the airport and in relationship to its runway configuration, can be accommodated by the LLWAS-NE network.
 

FIG 7-1-11

 

3. Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR).

(a) TDWR's are being deployed at 45 locations across the U.S.. Optimum locations for TDWR's are 8 to 12 miles off of the airport proper, and designed to look at the airspace around and over the airport to detect microbursts, gust fronts, wind shifts and precipitation intensities. TDWR products advise the controller of wind shear and microburst events impacting all runways and the areas ¹/₂ mile on either side of the extended centerline of the runways out to 3 miles on final approach and 2 miles out on departure.
(FIG 7-1-11 is a theoretical view of the warning boxes, including the runway, that the software uses in determining the location(s) of wind shear or microbursts). These warnings are displayed (as depicted in the examples in subparagraph 5) on the RBDT.

(b) It is very important to understand what TDWR does NOT DO:

It DOES NOT warn of wind shear outside of the alert boxes (on the arrival and departure ends of the runways);

It DOES NOT detect wind shear that is NOT a microburst or a gust front;

It DOES NOT detect gusty or cross wind conditions; and

It DOES NOT detect turbulence.

However, research and development is continuing on these systems. Future improvements may include such areas as storm motion (movement), improved gust front detection, storm growth and decay, microburst prediction, and turbulence detection.

(c) TDWR also provides a geographical situation display (GSD) for supervisors and traffic management specialists for planning purposes. The GSD displays (in color) 6 levels of weather (precipitation), gust fronts and predicted storm movement(s). See FIG 7-1-12 for a sample of what that display looks like. This data is used by the tower supervisor(s), traffic management specialists and controllers to plan for runway changes and arrival/departure route changes in order to both reduce aircraft delays and increase airport capacity.
 

FIG 7-1-12

 

4. Weather System Processor (WSP).

(a) The WSP provides the controller, supervisor, traffic management specialist, and ultimately the pilot, with the same products as the terminal doppler weather radar (TDWR) at a fraction of the cost of a TDWR. This is accomplished by utilizing new technologies to access the weather channel capabilities of the existing ASR-9 radar located on or near the airport, thus eliminating the requirements for a separate radar location, land acquisition, support facilities and the associated communication landlines and expenses.

(b) The WSP utilizes the same RBDT display as the TDWR and LLWAS, and, just like TDWR, also has a GSD for planning purposes by supervisors, traffic management specialists and controllers. The WSP GSD emulates the TDWR display, i.e., it also depicts 6 levels of precipitation, gust fronts and predicted storm movement, and like the TDWR GSD, is used to plan for runway changes and arrival/departure route changes in order to reduce aircraft delays and to increase airport capacity.

(c) This system is currently under development and is operating in a developmental test status at the Albuquerque, New Mexico, airport. When fielded, the WSP is expected to be installed at 34 airports across the nation, substantially increasing the safety of the American flying public.

5. Operational aspects of LLWAS, TDWR and WSP.

To demonstrate how this data is used by both the controller and the pilot, 3 ribbon display examples and their explanations are presented:

(a) MICROBURST ALERTS

EXAMPLE-
This is what the controller sees on his/her ribbon display in the tower cab.

27A MBA 35K- 2MF 250 20

NOTE-
(See FIG 7-1-13 to see how the TDWR/WSP determines the microburst location).

This is what the controller will say when issuing the alert.

PHRASEOLOGY-
RUNWAY 27 ARRIVAL, MICROBURST ALERT, 35 KT LOSS 2 MILE FINAL, THRESHOLD WIND 250 AT 20.

In plain language, the controller is telling the pilot that on approach to runway 27, there is a microburst alert on the approach lane to the runway, and to anticipate or expect a 35 knot loss of airspeed at approximately 2 miles out on final approach (where it will first encounter the phenomena). With that information, the aircrew is forewarned, and should be prepared to apply wind shear/microburst escape procedures should they decide to continue the approach. Additionally, the surface winds at the airport for landing runway 27 are reported as 250 degrees at 20 knots.

NOTE-
Threshold wind is at pilot's request or as deemed appropriate by the controller.

REFERENCE-
FAA Order 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, Paragraph 3-1-8b2(a).

(b) WIND SHEAR ALERTS

EXAMPLE-
This is what the controller sees on his/her ribbon display in the tower cab.
 

27A WSA 20K- 3MF 200 15

NOTE-
(See FIG 7-1-14 to see how the TDWR/WSP determines the wind shear location).

This is what the controller will say when issuing the alert.

PHRASEOLOGY-
RUNWAY 27 ARRIVAL, WIND SHEAR ALERT, 20 KT LOSS 3 MILE FINAL, THRESHOLD WIND 200 AT 15.

In plain language, the controller is advising the aircraft arriving on runway 27 that at about 3 miles out they can expect to encounter a wind shear condition that will decrease their airspeed by 20 knots and possibly encounter turbulence. Additionally, the airport surface winds for landing runway 27 are reported as 200 degrees at 15 knots.

NOTE-
Threshold wind is at pilot's request or as deemed appropriate by the controller.

REFERENCE-
FAA Order 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, Paragraph 3-1-8b2(a).
 

FIG 7-1-13

 

FIG 7-1-14

 

FIG 7-1-15

 

(c) MULTIPLE WIND SHEAR ALERTS

EXAMPLE-
This is what the controller sees on his/her ribbon display in the tower cab.

27A WSA 20K+ RWY 250 20

27D WSA 20K+ RWY 250 20

NOTE-
(See FIG 7-1-15 to see how the TDWR/WSP determines the gust front/wind shear location.)

This is what the controller will say when issuing the alert.

PHRASEOLOGY-
MULTIPLE WIND SHEAR ALERTS. RUNWAY 27 ARRIVAL, WIND SHEAR ALERT, 20 KT GAIN ON RUNWAY; RUNWAY 27 DEPARTURE, WIND SHEAR ALERT, 20 KT GAIN ON RUNWAY, WIND 250 AT 20.

EXAMPLE-
In this example, the controller is advising arriving and departing aircraft that they could encounter a wind shear condition right on the runway due to a gust front (significant change of wind direction) with the possibility of a 20 knot gain in airspeed associated with the gust front. Additionally, the airport surface winds (for the runway in use) are reported as 250 degrees at 20 knots.

REFERENCE-
FAA Order 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, Paragraph 3-1-8b2(d).

6. The Terminal Weather Information for Pilots System (TWIP).

(a) With the increase in the quantity and quality of terminal weather information available through TDWR, the next step is to provide this information directly to pilots rather than relying on voice communications from ATC. The National Airspace System has long been in need of a means of delivering terminal weather information to the cockpit more efficiently in terms of both speed and accuracy to enhance pilot awareness of weather hazards and reduce air traffic controller workload. With the TWIP capability, terminal weather information, both alphanumerically and graphically, is now available directly to the cockpit on a test basis at 9 locations.

(b) TWIP products are generated using weather data from the TDWR or the Integrated Terminal Weather System (ITWS) testbed. TWIP products are generated and stored in the form of text and character graphic messages. Software has been developed to allow TDWR or ITWS to format the data and send the TWIP products to a database resident at Aeronautical Radio, Inc. (ARINC). These products can then be accessed by pilots using the ARINC Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) data link services. Airline dispatchers can also access this database and send messages to specific aircraft whenever wind shear activity begins or ends at an airport.

(c) TWIP products include descriptions and character graphics of microburst alerts, wind shear alerts, significant precipitation, convective activity within 30 NM surrounding the terminal area, and expected weather that will impact airport operations. During inclement weather, i.e., whenever a predetermined level of precipitation or wind shear is detected within 15 miles of the terminal area, TWIP products are updated once each minute for text messages and once every five minutes for character graphic messages. During good weather (below the predetermined precipitation or wind shear parameters) each message is updated every 10 minutes. These products are intended to improve the situational awareness of the pilot/flight crew, and to aid in flight planning prior to arriving or departing the terminal area. It is important to understand that, in the context of TWIP, the predetermined levels for inclement versus good weather has nothing to do with the criteria for VFR/MVFR/IFR/LIFR; it only deals with precipitation, wind shears and microbursts.

7-1-25. PIREP's Relating to Volcanic Ash Activity

a. Volcanic eruptions which send ash into the upper atmosphere occur somewhere around the world several times each year. Flying into a volcanic ash cloud can be extremely dangerous. At least two B747's have lost all power in all four engines after such an encounter. Regardless of the type aircraft, some damage is almost certain to ensue after an encounter with a volcanic ash cloud.

b. While some volcanoes in the U.S. are monitored, many in remote areas are not. These unmonitored volcanoes may erupt without prior warning to the aviation community. A pilot observing a volcanic eruption who has not had previous notification of it may be the only witness to the eruption. Pilots are strongly encouraged to transmit a PIREP regarding volcanic eruptions and any observed volcanic ash clouds.

c. Pilots should submit PIREP's regarding volcanic activity using the Volcanic Activity Reporting (VAR) form as illustrated in Appendix 2. If a VAR form is not immediately available, relay enough information to identify the position and type of volcanic activity.

d. Pilots should verbally transmit the data required in items 1 through 8 of the VAR as soon as possible. The data required in items 9 through 16 of the VAR should be relayed after landing if possible.

7-1-26. Thunderstorms

a. Turbulence, hail, rain, snow, lightning, sustained updrafts and downdrafts, icing conditions-all are present in thunderstorms. While there is some evidence that maximum turbulence exists at the middle level of a thunderstorm, recent studies show little variation of turbulence intensity with altitude.

b. There is no useful correlation between the external visual appearance of thunderstorms and the severity or amount of turbulence or hail within them. The visible thunderstorm cloud is only a portion of a turbulent system whose updrafts and downdrafts often extend far beyond the visible storm cloud. Severe turbulence can be expected up to 20 miles from severe thunderstorms. This distance decreases to about 10 miles in less severe storms.

c. Weather radar, airborne or ground based, will normally reflect the areas of moderate to heavy precipitation (radar does not detect turbulence). The frequency and severity of turbulence generally increases with the radar reflectivity which is closely associated with the areas of highest liquid water content of the storm. NO FLIGHT PATH THROUGH AN AREA OF STRONG OR VERY STRONG RADAR ECHOES SEPARATED BY 20-30 MILES OR LESS MAY BE CONSIDERED FREE OF SEVERE TURBULENCE.

d. Turbulence beneath a thunderstorm should not be minimized. This is especially true when the relative humidity is low in any layer between the surface and 15,000 feet. Then the lower altitudes may be characterized by strong out flowing winds and severe turbulence.

e. The probability of lightning strikes occurring to aircraft is greatest when operating at altitudes where temperatures are between minus 5 degrees Celsius and plus 5 degrees Celsius. Lightning can strike aircraft flying in the clear in the vicinity of a thunderstorm.

f. METAR reports do not include a descriptor for severe thunderstorms. However, by understanding severe thunderstorm criteria, i.e., 50 knot winds or ³/₄ inch hail, the information is available in the report to know that one is occurring.

g. NWS radar systems are able to objectively determine radar weather echo intensity levels by use of Video Integrator Processor (VIP) equipment. These thunderstorm intensity levels are on a scale of one to six.

REFERENCE-
Pilot/Controller Glossary, Radar Weather Echo Intensity Levels.

EXAMPLE-
1. Alert provided by an ATC facility to an aircraft:
(aircraft identification) level five intense weather echo between ten o'clock and two o'clock, one zero miles, moving east at two zero knots, tops Flight Level three nine zero.
2. Alert provided by an AFSS/FSS:
(aircraft identification) level five intense weather echo, two zero miles west of Atlanta V-O-R, two five miles wide, moving east at two zero knots, tops Flight Level three nine zero.

7-1-27. Thunderstorm Flying

a. Above all, remember this: never regard any thunderstorm "lightly" even when radar observers report the echoes are of light intensity. Avoiding thunderstorms is the best policy. Following are some Do's and Don'ts of thunderstorm avoidance:

1. Don't land or takeoff in the face of an approaching thunderstorm. A sudden gust front of low level turbulence could cause loss of control.

2. Don't attempt to fly under a thunderstorm even if you can see through to the other side. Turbulence and wind shear under the storm could be disastrous.

3. Don't fly without airborne radar into a cloud mass containing scattered embedded thunderstorms. Scattered thunderstorms not embedded usually can be visually circumnavigated.

4. Don't trust the visual appearance to be a reliable indicator of the turbulence inside a thunderstorm.

5. Do avoid by at least 20 miles any thunderstorm identified as severe or giving an intense radar echo. This is especially true under the anvil of a large cumulonimbus.

6. Do clear the top of a known or suspected severe thunderstorm by at least 1,000 feet altitude for each 10 knots of wind speed at the cloud top. This should exceed the altitude capability of most aircraft.

7. Do circumnavigate the entire area if the area has ⁶/₁₀ thunderstorm coverage.

8. Do remember that vivid and frequent lightning indicates the probability of a strong thunderstorm.

9. Do regard as extremely hazardous any thunderstorm with tops 35,000 feet or higher whether the top is visually sighted or determined by radar.

b. If you cannot avoid penetrating a thunderstorm, following are some Do's before entering the storm:

1. Tighten your safety belt, put on your shoulder harness if you have one and secure all loose objects.

2. Plan and hold your course to take you through the storm in a minimum time.

3. To avoid the most critical icing, establish a penetration altitude below the freezing level or above the level of minus 15 degrees Celsius.

4. Verify that pitot heat is on and turn on carburetor heat or jet engine anti-ice. Icing can be rapid at any altitude and cause almost instantaneous power failure and/or loss of airspeed indication.

5. Establish power settings for turbulence penetration airspeed recommended in your aircraft manual.

6. Turn up cockpit lights to highest intensity to lessen temporary blindness from lightning.

7. If using automatic pilot, disengage altitude hold mode and speed hold mode. The automatic altitude and speed controls will increase maneuvers of the aircraft thus increasing structural stress.

8. If using airborne radar, tilt the antenna up and down occasionally. This will permit you to detect other thunderstorm activity at altitudes other than the one being flown.

c. Following are some Do's and Don'ts during the thunderstorm penetration:

1. Do keep your eyes on your instruments. Looking outside the cockpit can increase danger of temporary blindness from lightning.

2. Don't change power settings; maintain settings for the recommended turbulence penetration airspeed.

3. Do maintain constant attitude; let the aircraft "ride the waves." Maneuvers in trying to maintain constant altitude increase stress on the aircraft.

4. Don't turn back once you are in the thunderstorm. A straight course through the storm most likely will get you out of the hazards most quickly. In addition, turning maneuvers increase stress on the aircraft.

7-1-28. Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)